Keystone species:
influence greater than relative abundance
ex: predator keeps herbivore pop down, preserves rare grass
Biomes:
terrestrial, freshwater, marine
latitude, humidity, elevation-terrestrial
freshwater:
rivers, wetlands and basins (deeper than what they serve)
marine:
neritic -close to shelf
benthic-deep, sloping away from con shelf
pelagic-open sea
abyssal-very deep
hadal-trenches
food webs:
connections of energy from producer to consumer
trophic pyramid (see plankton to ahi, bioaccumulation biomagnification)
primary producers: autotrophs-photosynthetic plants, chemotrophic (sulfur)-inorganic sources (also foundation species)
heterotrophs-get energy from organic sources:
herbivores, carnivores, scavengers
lots of energy lost between trophic levels (thermodynamics)
ecosystems-
abiotic environment
producers-autotrophs, e.g. plants
consumers-heterotrophs, e.g. herbivores, canrivores
decomposers-detritovores
photosynthesis-
CO2, water, light into organic compounds (e.g. sugars)
photoautotrophs-plants
carbon fixation (redox rx) reduction is CO2 to CHO
chlorophyll, carotenes and xanthophylls
cellular respiration-
conversion of energy to ATP (phosphate bonds)
glucose, amino acids and fatty acids with O2 as an oxidizer (accepts electrons) OIL RIG
aerobic and anaerobic metabolysis (aerobic is 19x more efficient)
TCA cycle, mitochondria
biodiversity-
variation of life forms within a biome or ecosystem
genetic
species
ecosystem
creates stability and robustness in ecosystems
biogeochemical cycles (nutrient cycles)
how an element or molecule travels through biotic (living things) and abiotic (earth, air, water) parts of earth
reservoirs may differ: N2 in air, P in soil
closed system: C N O P
open system: energy, e.g. photosynthesis
cycles:
carbon
nitrogen
oxygen
phosphorus
water
also mercury and atrazine (herbicide)
GM crops
genetic engineering vs. selective breeding or mutation breeding
concerns: ecological, economic (LDC) and IP rights (see Monsanto)
uses restriction enzymes to ID and isolate genes
inserted using gene gun (plasmid) or agrobacterium
GMO
insertion or deletion of genes
recombinant DNA, transgenic organisms
if no DNA from other species, cisgenic (cis vs trans)
lentiviruses-can transfer genes to animal cells
Genentech-Berkeley 1978, created human insulin from E. Coli (vs. cow or pig insulin)
pesticides-
biological, chemical, antimicrobial, disinfectant
pests: pathogens, insects, weeds, mullosks, birds, mammals, fish, nematodes and microbes
any food competitor or spoiler, also disease vectors
herbicides-glyphosate (roundup)
insecticides-HCl, carbamates, pyrethrins, etc.
green fungicides-paldoxins
EPA regulates
banned: carcinogenic, mutagenic or bioaccumulators
see also NRDC
pesticide laws-
Federal insecticide act-1910
Federal insecticide, fungicide and rodenticide act (FIFRA)-1947 then 1972, 1988
1947-ag dept
1972-EPA
3 categories: antimicrobials, biopesticides, conventional
forest management-
silviculture, protection and regulation
conservation and economic concerns
watershed management included
see also FSC 1993, forest stewardship council
applied ecology-
conservation biology, ecology, habitat management
invasive species management
rangeland management
restoration ecology
land management-
habitat conservation
sustainable ag
urban planning
sustainable ag-
environmental stewardship
farm profitability
farming communities
e.g. ability to produce food indefinitely, without causing damage to ecosystem health
see also erosion, irrigation/salinization, crop rotation
see also landraces, e.g. prairie grasses
mining laws-
SMCRA
surface mining control and reclamation act (1977)
1. regulates active coal mines
2. reclamation of abandoned mines
dept of interior admin
response to strip mining (1930+)
SMCRA
regulation:
1. standards of performance
2. permitting
3. bonding
4. inspection/enforcement
5. land restrictions
compare to 1945 strip mining practices
Fisheries laws-
monitor and protect fisheries resources
overfishing conference 1936
1957: Beverton and Holt did study on fish dynamics
goals:
1. max sustainable biomass yield
2. max sust. econ yield
3. secure employment
4. secure protein supply
5. income from export
6. bio and economic yield
UNCLOS-UN convention on law of the sea
EEZ-exclusive economic zones
12 mi = coastal sovereignty
200 mi = fishing restrictions
2004-UN made stricter laws on fisheries mgt.
1995 code of conduct for responsible fisheries
quotas, taxation, enforcement (USCG)
tragedy of the commons-
1968 Science article-Garrett Hardin
individual benefit, common damage
strict management of global common goods
see also overgrazing, pollution, privatization
"a fundamental extension of morality"
ozone depletion-
stratospheric ozone depletion
4% since 1970
ozone hole over antarctica
catalytic destruction of ozone by chlorine and bromine
halogen compounds CFCs (freons) and bromofluorocarbons (halons)
ODS ozone depleting substances
ozone blocks UVB 270-315 nm
Montreal protocol 1987 banned CFCs
O + O3 --> 2O2 (transparent)
Cl + O3 -->ClO + O2
ClO + O3 -->Cl + 2O2
effects:
1. ++ carcinomas
2. melanomas
3. cataracts
4. ++ tropospheric ozone (toxic)
5. kills cyanobacteria (rice nitrogen fixers)
Differentiate from Global Climate Change (GCC)
Water quality:
WQI is a composite of many qualities (see below)
BOD is a measure of the oxygen demand to decompose organic materials
BOD measures the rate of oxygen uptake by micro-organisms in a sample of water at a temperature of 20°C and over an elapsed period of five days in the dark.
The following is a list of indicators often measured by situational category:
Drinking water
▪ Alkalinity
▪ Color of water
▪ pH
▪ Taste and odor (geosmin, 2-methylisoborneol (MIB), etc)
▪ Dissolved metals and salts (sodium, chloride, potassium, calcium, manganese, magnesium)
▪ Microorganisms such as fecal coliform bacteria (Escherichia coli), Cryptosporidium, and Giardia lamblia
▪ Dissolved metals and metalloids (lead, mercury, arsenic, etc.)
▪ Dissolved organics: colored dissolved organic matter (CDOM), dissolved organic carbon
▪ Radon
▪ Heavy metals
▪ Pharmaceuticals
▪ Hormone analogs
Environmental
Chemical assessment
▪ Conductivity (also see salinity)
▪ Dissolved Oxygen
▪ nitrate-N
▪ orthophosphates
▪ Chemical oxygen demand (COD)
▪ Biochemical oxygen demand (BOD)
▪ Pesticides
Physical assessment
▪ pH
▪ Temperature
▪ Total suspended solids (TSS)
▪ Turbidity
Electrical power numbers:
1 Watt
1000 Watts = 1 kW
These measure rate of energy use (this is called power)
energy use: power x time
kW x hours or kWh
example: 1 kWh is a 500 Watt device used for 2 hours
MWh is a megawatt hour
power plants are often rated in MW rating, or GW rating (gigawatt, or 1000 MW)
Toxicity:
LD50 is the measure of toxicity that kills 50% of the population after 2 weeks
The LD50 is usually expressed as the mass of substance administered per unit mass of test subject, such as grams of substance per kilogram of body mass.
As a measure of toxicity, LD50 is somewhat unreliable and results may vary greatly between testing facilities due to factors such as the genetic characteristics of the sample population, animal species tested, environmental factors and mode of administration.[3] Another weakness is that it measures acute toxicity only (as opposed to chronic toxicity at lower doses), and does not take into account toxic effects that do not result in death but are nonetheless serious (e.g. brain damage). There can be wide variability between species as well; what is relatively safe for rats may very well be extremely toxic for humans, and vice versa. In other words, a relatively high LD50 does not necessarily mean a substance is harmless, but a very low one is always a cause for concern.
see also LC50: lethal concentration
3 laws of thermodynamics:
1. you cannot win (no process can be more than 100% efficient)
2. you cannot break even (no process can be even 100% efficient)
3. you cannot get out of the game (entropy or disorder tends to increase in spontaneous processes)
See also Gibbs free energy: ∆G = ∆H - T∆S or "goldfish are hell without tartar sauce"
ENSO: el nine southern oscillation
coriolis effect: recall hurricane iniki
aquifer: have an example ready for the depletion/pollution and describe recharge rate
main soil types, main rock types, geological basics (eras etc.)
climate shifts: how do these effect migration and location of animals? Why not plants?
fertility rates, doubling times (rule of 70), demographic transitions, age-structure diagrams
nutritional requirements
sustainable ag (see above)
urban sprawl: define. How has the auto made this possible?
urban heat island effect: define
ore concentration curves
CAFE standards-definition, impact, exceptions
Populations:
K and r strategists
Rule of 70 for population growth doubling times
21/1000 numbers for population-why?
immigration vs. emigration-define
TBR-total birth rate
soil layers-see redbook on this one
Urban sprawl:
define, give alternatives
Urban planning, growth patterns
CARRYING CAPACITY-always on the AP exam: stable population, renewable resources, sustainable
"stable" is really negative feedback, equilibrium
Strategies:
K: mammals, take care of young, reach stable population at carrying capacity, few offspring, density dependent, low infant mortality
r: bacteria, lots of offspring, high infant mortality, limited by density independent factors (fire, flood, etc.)
see the growth formula: N is population, t is time, r is growth rate, K is carrying capacity:
∆N/∆t = rN(1-N/K)
n.b. as N/k -> 1, ∆N/∆t -> 0
negative feedback is the key here
r: less crowded, so N/K is close to 0, so rate is rN
K: follows carrying capacity, so N/K close to 1, so rate is close to 0
Malthus: population grows exponentially, food linearly, tf crash
see fig 7.12
Impact: IPAT
Impact = population * affluence * technology (we are high on all three)
imagine a village...
Demography: birthrate vs. deathrate
TFR: total fertility rate: number of offpring in female lifetime
2.1 is stable (why not 2.0?)
Natural Selection:
1. genetic variation (if none, then there is no outstanding survivor possible)
2. plenty of offspring, leading to…
3. stress on the system resources (food, water, land etc.)
4. outstanding survivors reproduce
5. incremental changes over generations improve adaptation (could be fast, like bacteria or fruit flies)
Regulation questions:
1. CERCLA stands for what?
2. What happened at Love canal?
3. How was CERCLA expanded in 1986?
4. How is the SuperFund funded now?
5. What two kinds of response actions are outlined in the CERCLA?
6. Who are the "potential responsible parties" under CERCLA?
7. What is the NCP revision, and how does it impact polluters?
8. What is the NPL and what is it's role?
9. What does RCRA stand for?
10. Why is it an improvement on the 1965 law on solid waste?
11. Explain "cradle to grave" requirements and give an example.
12. What is a TSDF, and how does it manage hazardous waste?
13. What is a "whistleblower" and how are they provided for in the RCRA?
14. What are the corporate arguments against the clean air act?
15. Describe the 1955, 1963, 1967, 1970, 1977 and 1990 acts and cite a common theme and opponent.
16. What was new in the 1990 law that may affect third world nations?
17. Last week the EPA made news regarding CO2 emissions and the clean air act. What happened?
18. What is the CWA, and how is it enforced?
19. What are navigable waters, and how are they defined?
20. How does the CWA treat point sources? Give at least two examples.
21. How is this different for non-point sources?
22. What is different with the WQA of 1987?
23. Explain the NEPA act of 1970, and its impact.
24. What happened off the coast of Santa Barbara in 1969 (also the year of Woodstock, and several assassinations), and how is it relevant today, March 2, 2010?
25. What is an EIS, and are they required today?
26. How does an EIS differ from an EA?
Explain the KT boundary (CT)
Who survived? Why?
Major human impact:
1. habitat loss
2. exploitation
3. exotic species introduction
4. predator/pest control
5. climate change
Sanitary Landfill: why so important
More notes on Population:
population: same species, same location
Factors: birthrate (natality), death rate (mortality), sex ratio, age distribution, growth rate (r), density, spatial distribution
birthrate is per 1000 people, so 20/2000 is 10/k per year
mortality is same
survivorship curves (see fig 7.2) sheep-long life, birds-predators, non specific, plants-lots of offspring don't survive
population growth rate = Brate - Drate
See Fig 7.1, see also 6.6 in c/c page 123
Sex ratio: women always on the right
age distribution curves: pyramid is + growth, parallel is stable growth, inverted pyramid is - growth
repro years = 15-40 for female humans
see figure 7.3
spatial distribution: flowers
emigration: out, immigration:in
biotic potential: inherent repro capacity: geese=10/year, elephants=0.5/year
population curves: see figure 7.5
lag section: lots of food, takes time to reproduce
exponential section: grows according to At = A0 e kt
deceleration: food supply outstripped by population
stable: balance
overshoot: too many for food supply
see figure 6.3 and 6.4 in c/c chapter 6, page 119
see also figure 6.8 in c/c on overshoot
limiting factors: environmental resistance
extrinsic: predators, food source
intrinsic: self controlled, mice fertility drops in overpopulation (negative feedback)
see figure 6.10 in c/c, extinction rate
density dependent: predators, food
density independent: frost, flood, fire
limiting factors: energy, waste, raw materials
CARRYING CAPACITY-always on the AP exam: stable population, renewable resources, sustainable
"stable" is really negative feedback, equilibrium
More on ecosystems:
Chapter 6 notes: Ecosystems and communities
Succession-communites proceed through series of recognizable, predicatable changes in structure over time
long lasting and stable
factors: climate, food, invasion etc.
climax comm. stable, long lasting result of succession
determined by climate, water, substrate and org. type
primary succession-no existing organisms
secondary succession-destruction of existing ecosystem
Primary succession-terrestrial-
factors: substrate (e.g. soil), climate, repro structures, rate of growth, organic matter, water
pioneer comm.- first to colonize bare rock (e.g. lichen)
later comm.-soil available, holds water (life)
1 pioneer stage
lichen: mutualistic: algae/bacteria(photosynthesis) + fungi to hold on
2 secondary stage: soil: retains water, structural support
(succession: plants shade lichens)
3 climax community-stable, diverse, interconnected, interdependent, many niches, recycle biomass (constant)
process of succession is called a sere, stages are seral stages
see fig 6.3-imagine driving from puako to waimea
Primary succession-aquatic
oceanic-stable
limnotic/riparian-transitional, fills with sediment
stages:
1. aquatic vegetation-e.g. aquarium, leads to wet soil and terrestrial networks (roots, wet meadow)
2. transitional: biomass of trees creates top layers of soil, transition to terrestrial climax comm.
imagine trip from middle of lake to shore-see all transitions
bogs=transitional stage from shore to dry land (Ireland, Scotland)
Secondary Succession-terrestrial
recall: existing comm. is replaced
e.g. pond fills to become a meadow, then climax forest
can reverse: beaver dams: land to aquatic
see also human dams, exponential decay curve
Biomes-------
determined by climate, altitude, water (precipitation), temperature
similar niches and habitats in each biome